Perovskite Solar Cells: Materials, Processes, and Devices

Description DESCRIPTION Presents a thorough overview of perovskite research, written by leaders in the field of photovoltaics   The use of perovskite-structured materials to produce high-efficiency solar cells is a subject of growing interest for academic researchers and industry professionals alike. Due to their excellent light absorption, longevity, and charge-carrier properties, perovskite solar cells show great promise as a low-cost, industry-scalable alternative to conventional photovoltaic cells. Perovskite Solar Cells: Materials, Processes, and Devices provides an up-to-date overview of the current state of perovskite solar cell research. Addressing the key areas in the rapidly growing field, this comprehensive volume covers novel materials, advanced theory, modelling and simulation, device physics, new processes, and the critical issue of solar cell stability. Contributions by an international panel of researchers highlight both the opportunities and challenges related to perovskite solar cells while offering detailed insights on topics such as the photon recycling processes, interfacial properties, and charge transfer principles of perovskite-based devices. Examines new compositions, hole and electron transport materials, lead-free materials, and 2D and 3D materials Covers interface modelling techniques, methods for modelling in two and three dimensions, and developments beyond Shockley-Queisser Theory Discusses new fabrication processes such as slot-die coating, roll processing, and vacuum sublimation Describes the device physics of perovskite solar cells, including recombination kinetics and optical absorption Explores innovative approaches to increase the light conversion efficiency of photovoltaic cells Perovskite Solar Cells: Materials, Processes, and Devices is essential reading for all those in the photovoltaic community, including materials scientists, surface physicists, surface chemists, solid state physicists, solid state chemists, and electrical engineers. TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword xv 1 Chemical Processing of Mixed-Cation Hybrid Perovskites: Stabilizing Effects of Configurational Entropy 1 Feray Ünlü, Eunhwan Jung, Senol Öz, Heechae Choi, Thomas Fischer, andSanjay Mathur 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Stability Issues of Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskites 2 1.2 Crystal Structure of Perovskites 4 1.2.1 Goldschmidt Tolerance Factor for 3D Structure 5 1.2.2 Octahedral Factor 5 1.2.3 Role of A-Site Cation 7 1.2.4 Theoretical Calculations: Molecular Dynamics of A-Site Cation 8 1.2.5 Entropy of Mixing: Configurational Effects in Mixed-Cation Perovskites 11 1.3 Multiple A-Site Cation Perovskites 12 1.3.1 FA /MA  Alloying for Higher Phase Stability and Photovoltaic Efficiency 12 1.3.2 Cesium Inclusion for Thermal Stability 13 1.3.3 Rb  Small-Cation Influence on Perovskite Structure for Thermal Stability 15 1.3.4 Guanidinium Large-Cation Influence on Perovskite Structure for Stability 16 1.3.5 Triple- and Quadruple-Cation Hybrid Perovskites for Stability and Optimum Performance 17 1.3.6 Larger Organic Cations: Reducing Dimensionality for Improved Thermal Stability 20 1.4 Conclusion and Perspectives 22 Acknowledgments 24 References 24 2 Flash Infrared Annealing for Processing of Perovskite Solar Cells 33 Sandy Sánchez and Anders Hagfeldt 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Perovskite Crystal Nucleation and Growth from Solution 34 2.2.1 The Antisolvent Dripping Method 34 2.2.2 Thermodynamics of Nucleation and Crystal Growth 34 2.2.3 Kinetic Process for Rapid Thermal Growth 36 2.3 Rapid Thermal Annealing 37 2.3.1 The FIRA Method 37 2.3.2 FIRA and Antisolvent 39 2.3.3 Perovskite Film Crystallization for a Single IR Pulse 40 2.3.4 Perovskite Crystallization with Pulse Duration 42 2.3.5 Pulsed FIRA Method for Inorganic Perovskite Composition 45 2.3.6 Warmed-Pulsed FIRA Method 46 2.3.7 Crystallization Behavior of Mixed Perovskite Solutions 47 2.4 Structural Analysis of FIRA-Annealed Perovskite Films with Variable Pulse Time 50 2.4.1 Planar and Mesoporous Substrates 50 2.4.2 Crystal Structure Analysis 51 2.4.3 Structure of the Intermediate Phases 53 2.4.4 Internal Crystal Domain Structure 56 2.5 A Cost-Effective and Environmentally Friendly Method 57 2.5.1 Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the Perovskite Film Synthesis Methods 57 2.5.2 Relative Cost and Environmental Impact of the AS and FIRA Methods 58 2.6 Application for MAPI3 Perovskite Solar Cells 60 2.6.1 Single IR Pulse and MAPbI3 Perovskite Composition 60 2.6.2 Large-Area Devices 60 2.7 Planar Devices Architecture and Mixed Perovskite Composition 64 2.7.1 Thin Film Analysis 64 2.7.2 PV Performance and Electronic Characteristic of the Devices 64 2.8 Pulsed FIRA for Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells 67 2.8.1 Thin Film Analysis 67 2.8.2 PV Performance 68 2.9 Rapid Manufacturing of PSCs with an Adapted Perovskite Chemical Composition 71 2.9.1 Rapid Annealed TiO2 Mesoscopic Film 71 2.9.2 FCG Perovskite Stabilized with TBAI 72 2.9.3 PV Performance of the Manufactured PSCs 73 2.10 Outlook and Technical Details 75 2.10.1 Optimization of FIRA Process for Tandem Solar Cells 75 2.10.2 Automatic Roll-to-Roll System for the FIRA Manufacture of Perovskite Solar Cells 77 2.10.3 Electronic Setup 78 2.10.4 LabView Interface 78 2.11 Experimental Methods 80 2.11.1 Manufacture of Perovskite Solar Cells 80 2.11.2 Perovskite Solution Preparation 80 2.11.3 Antisolvent Method 81 2.11.4 FIRA Method 81 2.11.5 HTM Deposition and Back Contact Evaporation 81 2.11.6 Device Characterization 82 2.11.7 Material Characterization 82 2.11.8 Temperature Measurement 83 List of Abbreviations 83 Acknowledgments 84 References 84 3 Passivation of Hybrid/Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells 91 Muhammad Akmal Kamarudin and Shuzi Hayase 3.1 Introduction 91 3.1.1 Types of Passivation 93 3.1.1.1 Bulk Passivation 93 3.1.1.2 Surface Passivation 93 3.1.2 Passivating Materials 95 3.1.2.1 Metal Halides 95 3.1.2.2 Organic Acids (—COOH, —SOOH, and —POOH) 96 3.1.2.3 Organosulfur Compound 98 3.1.2.4 Amines 98 3.1.2.5 Graphene 100 3.1.2.6 Metal Oxides 100 3.1.2.7 Organic Halides 102 3.1.2.8 Quantum Dots 104 3.1.2.9 Polymers 104 3.1.2.10 Zwitterions 107 3.2 Conclusion 107 References 108 4 Tuning Interfacial Effects in Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells 113 Rafael S. Sánchez, Lionel Hirsch, and Dario M. Bassani 4.1 Strategies for Interfacial Deposition and Analysis 113 4.1.1 Tailoring the PS Properties and Microstructural Interface Through Solvent Engineering 114 4.1.2 Tailoring the PS Properties and Microstructural Interface Through Non-solvent Methods 117 4.2 Defect Formation in PS Films and Interfaces 118 4.2.1 Defect Formation in the PS Bulk and at the Surface During Film Crystallization 119 4.2.2 Defect Formation and Dynamics of PSC Under Working Conditions 122 4.3 Passivation Strategies of PS 126 4.4 Measuring and Tuning the Work Function and Surface Potential in PSC 130 4.5 Tuning the Wettability and Compatibility Between Layers 138 4.6 Effect on Device Efficiency and Lifetime 142 4.6.1 Moisture Effects on PS Films and PSC 142 4.6.2 Photoinduced Degradation of PS Films and PSC 146 4.6.3 Thermal Degradation of PS Films and PSC 149 4.6.4 Other Sources of Degradation in PSC 150 4.7 Conclusions and Prospects 153 References 154 5 All-inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells 175 Yaowen Li and Yongfang Li 5.1 Introduction 175 5.2 Basic Knowledge of All-inorganic Pero-SCs 176 5.2.1 Crystalline Structure 176 5.2.2 Stability 177 5.2.2.1 Thermal Stability 177 5.2.2.2 Phase Stability 177 5.2.2.3 Light Stability 178 5.2.3 Working Principle 178 5.3 Lead-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 179 5.3.1 CsPbI3 179 5.3.1.1 Additive Engineering 181 5.3.1.2 Organic Compound Treatment 181 5.3.1.3 Crystal Size Reduction and Morphology Optimization 183 5.3.1.4 Current Density Increase 185 5.3.2 CsPbI2Br 185 5.3.2.1 Fabrication Methods 185 5.3.2.2 Ionic Incorporation 189 5.3.2.3 Interface Engineering 191 5.3.3 CsPbIBr2 193 5.3.3.1 Crystal Growth 194 5.3.3.2 Ionic Incorporation 195 5.3.3.3 Interface Engineering 196 5.3.4 CsPbBr3 196 5.3.4.1 Fabrication Method 197 5.3.4.2 Ionic Incorporation 199 5.3.4.3 Interface Engineering 199 5.4 Tin-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 200 5.4.1 CsSnI3 200 5.4.1.1 Fabrication Methods 201 5.4.1.2 Additive Engineering 203 5.4.1.3 Substrate Control 203 5.4.2 CsSnIxBr3−x 204 5.5 Other Inorganic Pero-SCs 204 5.5.1 Ge-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 205 5.5.2 Sb-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 205 5.5.3 Bi-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 206 5.5.3.1 A3B2I9 Structure 206 5.5.3.2 Other Structures 207 5.5.4 Double B site Cation Perovskite 207 5.6 Conclusion 209 References 210 6 Tin Halide Perovskite Solar Cells 223 Thomas Stergiopoulos 6.1 Introduction 223 6.2 Why Tin Halide Perovskites? 223 6.2.1 Tin as the Sole Viable Alternative 223 6.2.2 Favorable Optoelectronic Properties of Tin Perovskites 224 6.2.2.1 Low Bandgap 224 6.2.2.2 High Charge Carrier Mobility 224 6.2.2.3 Similar Properties with Lead Perovskites 225 6.3 Concerns About Tin-Based Perovskites 225 6.3.1 Severe Non-radiative Recombination 225 6.3.2 Poor Stability 226 6.4 Control of Hole Doping 227 6.4.1 Sn2  Compensation/Necessity of Adding SnF2 227 6.4.2 Additives to Improve SnF2 Dispersion 227 6.4.3 Elimination of Sn4  Impurities 229 6.4.3.1 SnI2 Purification 229 6.4.3.2 Reaction of Sn Powder with Sn4  Residuals 229 6.4.3.3 Addition of Reducing Agents 230 6.5 Films Deposition 231 6.5.1 Crystallization Tuning 231 6.5.1.1 Solvent Engineering 231 6.5.1.2 Additives to Slow Down Crystallization Kinetics 232 6.5.2 Posttreatment Strategies/Surface Trap Passivation 233 6.6 Contacts/Interface Engineering 234 6.7 Ongoing Challenges 235 6.7.1 Efficiency 235 6.7.2 Stability 238 6.7.3 Performance over the S–Q Limit/Toward Multijunction Solar Cells 238 6.7.4 Sustainability 241 6.8 Conclusion 241 Acknowledgments 242 References 242 7 Low-Temperature and Facile Solution-Processed Two-Dimensional Materials as Electron Transport Layer for Highly Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells 247 Shao Hui, Najib H. Ladi, Han Pan, Yan Shen, and Mingkui Wang 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 Charge Transport in Perovskite Solar Cells 249 7.3 Brief Development of Perovskite Solar Cells 251 7.4 Functions and Requirements of Electron Transport Layer 253 7.5 Features and Advantages of Two-Dimensional Electron Transport Materials 256 7.6 Van der Waals Heterojunctions 256 7.7 Quantum Confinement Effect in Two-Dimensional Electron Transport Materials and Its Application 258 7.8 Other Physical Properties of Two-Dimensional Electron Transport Materials 259 7.9 Synthesis of Various Two-Dimensional Materials 260 7.10 Application of Two-Dimensional Material as an Electron Transport Layer in Perovskite Solar Cells 262 7.11 Conclusion and Outlook 266 List of Abbreviations 267 References 268 8 Metal Oxides in Stable and Flexible Halide Perovskite Solar Cells: Toward Self-Powered Internet of Things 273 Carlos Pereyra, Haibing Xie, Amir N. Shandy, Vanessa Martínez, HenckPierre, Elia Santigosa, Daniel A. Acuña-Leal, Laia Capdevila, Quentin Billon,Löis Mergny, María Ramos-Payán, Mónica Gomez, Bindu Krishnan, MariaMuñoz, David M. Tanenbaum, Anders Hagfeldt, and Monica Lira-Cantu 8.1 Introduction 273 8.2 Metal Oxides in Normal (n–i–p), Inverted (p–i–n) and “Oxide-Sandwich” Halide Perovskite Solar Cells 275 8.3 Mesoporous Metal Oxide Bilayers in Highly Stable Carbon-Based Perovskite Solar Cells 277 8.4 Solution-Processable Metal Oxides for Flexible Halide Perovskite Solar Cells 288 8.5 Characterization of PSC by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 294 8.6 Conclusions 299 Acknowledgments 299 References 300 9 Electron Transport Layers in Perovskite Solar Cells 311 Fatemeh Jafari, Mehrad Ahmadpour, Um Kanta Aryal, Mariam Ahmad,Michela Prete, Naeimeh Torabi, Vida Turkovic, Horst-Günter Rubahn, AbbasBehjat, and Morten Madsen 9.1 Introduction 311 9.2 Requirements of Ideal Electron Transport Layers (ETL) 312 9.3 Overview of Electron Transport Materials 314 9.3.1 Metal Oxide Electron Transport Materials 314 9.3.2 Organic Electron Transport Materials 317 9.4 The Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells 321 9.4.1 Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells 321 9.4.2 Planar Perovskite Solar Cells 323 Acknowledgments 324 References 324 10 Dopant-Free Hole-Transporting Materials for Perovskite Solar Cells 331 Meenakshi Pegu, Shahzada Ahmad, and Samrana Kazim 10.1 Introduction 331 10.1.1 Device Structure of Perovskite Solar Cells 332 10.1.2 Charge Transport in Perovskite Solar Cells and Role of HTM 333 10.2 Hole-Transporting Material for Perovskite Solar Cells 334 10.2.1 Characteristics of an HTM and Interaction with Perovskite 334 10.2.2 Nature of HTM: Organometallic, Inorganic, and Organic (Small Molecules and Polymers) 336 10.2.3 Doping of Hole-Transporting Materials in PSCs 337 10.3 Dopant-Free Organic HTMs for Perovskite Solar Cells 340 10.3.1 Dopant-Free Organic Polymer As HTM 340 10.3.2 Dopant-Free Small Molecules as HTM 340 10.3.2.1 Triarylamine-Based HTM 340 10.3.2.2 Carbazole-Based HTMs 348 10.3.2.3 Thiophene-Based HTMs 349 10.3.2.4 Acene-Based HTMs 350 10.3.2.5 Triazatruxene-Based HTMs 350 10.3.2.6 Tetrathiafulvalene-Based HTM 353 10.3.2.7 Organometallic Compounds and Other Molecules as HTM 353 10.4 Conclusion and Outlook 356 Acknowledgments 356 List of Abbreviations 356 References 359 11 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on the Structural and Photophysical Properties of Halide Perovskite 369 Mojtaba Abdi-Jalebi and M. Ibrahim Dar 11.1 Introduction 369 11.2 Metal Halides 369 11.3 Monovalent Metal Halides 370 11.4 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on the Morphological, Structural and Optoelectronic Properties of Perovskites 372 11.5 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on Photovoltaic Device Characterizations 378 References 384 12 Charge Carrier Dynamics in Perovskite Solar Cells 389 Mohd T. Khan, Abdullah Almohammedi, Samrana Kazim, and Shahzada Ahmad 12.1 Introduction 389 12.2 Space Charge-Limited Conduction 390 12.3 Immitance Spectroscopy 395 12.3.1 Impedance Spectroscopy 395 12.3.2 Capacitance Spectroscopy 402 12.3.2.1 Capacitance vs. Frequency (C–f ) Measurements 403 12.3.2.2 Capacitance vs. Voltage (C–V) Measurements and Mott–Schottky Analysis 406 12.3.2.3 Thermal Admittance Spectroscopy 409 12.4 Transient Spectroscopy 413 12.4.1 Time-Resolved Microwave Conductivity Measurements 413 12.4.2 Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 417 12.4.3 Time-Resolved Photoluminescence 420 12.5 Conclusion 423 Acknowledgments 424 References 424 13 Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells 431 Daiyu Li, Yaoguang Rong, Yue Hu, Anyi Mei, and Hongwei Han 13.1 Introduction 431 13.2 Device Structures and Working Principles 432 13.3 Progress of Efficiency and Stability 433 13.4 Scaling-up of Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells 438 13.4.1 The Structure of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules 438 13.4.2 Solution Deposition Methods of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules 440 13.4.3 Encapsulation of Printable Mesoscopic PSCs 442 13.4.4 The Recycling of Printable Mesoscopic PSCs 442 13.4.5 Mass-Production of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules 444 13.4.6 Standardizing the Evaluation of PSC Modules 445 13.4.7 Standardizing the Aging Measurements of PSC Modules 447 13.5 Conclusions 449 References 449 14 Upscaling of Perovskite Photovoltaics 453 Dongju Jang, Fu Yang, Lirong Dong, Christoph J. Brabec, and Hans-Joachim Egelhaaf 14.1 Introduction 453 14.2 Techniques for Upscaling 457 14.3 State-of-the-art of Large-Area High-Quality Perovskite Devices 467 14.4 Strategies of Upscaling of Perovskite Devices 471 14.4.1 Strategies for Up-Scaling Perovskite Layers 473 14.4.1.1 Physical Methods 473 14.4.1.2 Chemical Methods 476 14.4.1.3 Post-Growth Treatment 477 14.4.2 Scalable Charge Extraction Layers 478 14.4.3 Scalable Electrodes 479 14.4.3.1 Bottom Electrode 479 14.4.3.2 Top Electrode 481 14.5 Module Layout 481 14.6 Lifetime Aspects 484 14.7 Summary and Outlook 486 References 489 15 Scalable Architectures and Fabrication Processes of Perovskite Solar Cell Technology 497 Ghufran S. Hashmi 15.1 Background 497 15.1.1 Configurations and Device Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells 498 15.1.2 HTM-Free Device Configurations for Perovskite Solar Cells 499 15.1.3 Perovskites-Based Tandem Solar Cells 500 15.2 Scalable Device Designs of Perovskite Solar Cells 501 15.2.1 Scalable n–i–p Configuration-Based Perovskite Solar Modules 501 15.2.2 Scalable p–i–n Configuration-Based Perovskite Solar Modules 504 15.2.3 Scalable n–i–p and p–i–n Configuration-Based Flexible Perovskite Solar Modules 504 15.2.4 HTM-Free Perovskite Solar Modules 508 15.3 Critical Overview on Scalable Materials Deposition Methods 509 15.4 Nutshell of Long-Term Device Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules 513 15.5 Conclusive Summary and Futuristic Outlook 514 References 515 16 Multi-Junction Perovskite Solar Cells 521 Suhas Mahesh and Bernard Wenger 16.1 Introduction 521 16.1.1 How Efficient Can Solar Cells Be? 523 16.1.2 How Do Multi-Junction Solar Cells Work? 525 16.1.3 Multi-Junction: Two-Terminal, Three-Terminal, and Four-Terminal Multi-Junctions 525 16.1.4 Why Perovskites for Multi-Junctions? 528 16.2 Perovskite-Silicon Tandems 529 16.2.1 Bandgap Engineering 530 16.2.2 Parasitic Absorption 532 16.2.3 Optical Management 535 16.3 Perovskite–Perovskite Tandems 536 16.4 Characterizing Tandems 538 16.5 Commercialization 539 16.5.1 Reliability 540 16.5.2 Scalability 540 16.5.3 Cost 541 16.6 Outlook 542 References 543 Index 549